Table 4 Mixed Effects Model for Students’ Science Ability

Fixed effects

 Intercepts

465.32***(70.08)

472.47***(84.46)

459.50***(84.11)

444.50***(70.11)

Country Level

 GDP Per Capita [country mean]

1.18 ^ns(1.37)

10.98*(2.48)

3.51 ^ns(0.79)

0.05 ^ns(0.10)

School Level

 Economic, social, and cultural status (school mean) [CMC]

71.98***(77.38)

67.81***(82.47)

66.80***(83.14)

68.60***(88.07)

 School type (public) [dummy]

6.91***(4.92)

8.48***(6.70)

11.49***(9.56)

14.04***(11.74)

 Creative extra-curricular activities [GMC]

6.01***(11.36)

4.84***(10.97)

3.76***(8.25)

4.49***(10.87)

 Shortage of educational staff [CMC]

− 2.04**(-3.62)

− 2.36***(− 5.00)

− 0.95*(− 2.05)

− 0.32 ^ns(− 0.72)

 Quality of educational resources [CMC]

1.40*(2.65)

0.20 ^ns(0.42)

–

–

 Shortage of educational material [CMC]

–

–

0.14 ^ns(0.32)

− 0.58 ^ns(− 1.28)

 Number of available computers per student [GMC]

− 1.02**(− 2.12)

− 0.76*(− 2.29)

− 0.51 ^ns (− 0.82)

− 0.13 ^ns(− 0.27)

 Proportion of available computers connected to Net [GMC]

5.39***(3.65)

0.90 ^ns(0.58)

− 2.45 ^ns(− 1.69)

4.26***(3.29)

Student Level

 Economic, social, and cultural status [SMC]

17.04***(90.44)

18.16***(96.09)

18.95***(86.15)

17.35***(84.12)

 Gender [dummy]

6.92***(21.95)

9.12***(30.05)

10.20***(28.34)

5.94***(17.69)

ICT Outside School

 ICT available at home [GMC]

− 1.00***(− 5.23)

− 8.69***(− 49.40)

− 3.15***(− 32.47)

− 8.68***(− 45.70)

 ICT use outside of school (leisure) [GMC]

− 2.25***(− 12.41)

1.68***(10.20)

− 0.91***(− 4.33)

2.48***(14.28)

 ICT use outside of school (for schoolwork activities) [GMC]

− 5.69***(− 31.38)

− 1.15***(− 6.24)

− 4.91***(− 22.37)

− 5.25***(− 26.34)

 ICT as a topic in social interaction [GMC]

–

–

− 7.35***(− 33.75)

− 7.63***(− 37.39)

 Subject-related ICT use outside of lessons [GMC]

–

–

–

1.79***(10.30)

ICT inside school

 ICT available at school [SMC]

0.72***(4.11)

− 1.80***(− 10.53)

− 3.22***(− 16.73)

− 3.43***(− 19.08)

 Use of ICT at school in general [SMC]

− 8.36***(− 45.35)

− 8.39***(− 46.75)

− 8.33***(− 39.21)

− 9.42***(− 48.87)

 Subject-related ICT use during lessons [SMC]

–

–

–

− 1.21***(− 6.24)

Attitude toward ICT

 Self-confidence in ICT high-level tasks [GMC]

6.44***(41.14)

–

–

–

 Attitude toward computers (ATC) [GMC]

5.25***(33.53)

–

–

–

 ATC: Limitations of comp. as tool for school learning [GMC]

–

− 11.82***(− 78.73)

–

–

 ATC: Computer as tool for school learning [GMC]

–

4.26***(27.24)

–

–

 Interest in ICT [GMC]

–

–

3.72***(18.05)

5.06***(26.60)

 Perceived ICT competence [GMC]

–

–

2.71***(11.24)

3.86***(17.27)

 Perceived autonomy related to ICT use [GMC]

–

–

11.90***(50.99)

10.20***(46.74)

Random effects

 Country-level effects

% variance reduced

(1671–1561)/ 1671 = 

6.6%

(1310–1103)/1310 = 15.8%

(1564–1028)/ 1564 = 34.3%

(1711–1648)/ 1711 = 3.7%

 School-level effects

% variance reduced

(2774–1374)/ 2774 = 

50.5%

(2621–1200)/ 2621 = 54.2%

(2242–937)/ 2242 = 58.2%

(2134–816)/ 2134 = 61.8%

 Student-level effects

% variance reduced

(4665–4360)/ 4665 = 

6.5%

(4412–4027)/ 4412 = 8.7%

(6255–5674)/ 6255 = 9.3%

(6188–5600)/ 6188 = 9.5%