Table 5 Weighted linear regression of the natural logarithm of the literacy score, Canada, 1994 IALS, 2003 ALL and 2012 PIAAC data combined (full model—with all control variables)

Age group

 25–34 years old (Ref. Cat.)

 16–24 years old

0.049***

[0.008]

0.046***

[0.005]

0.033*

[0.014]

0.048***

[0.012]

 35–44 years old

− 0.032**

[0.011]

− 0.029***

[0.007]

− 0.024^†

[0.013]

− 0.034*

[0.015]

 45–54 years old

− 0.073***

[0.015]

− 0.067***

[0.009]

− 0.045

[0.031]

− 0.078***

[0.016]

 55–64 years old

− 0.115***

[0.016]

− 0.102***

[0.012]

− 0.075*

[0.029]

− 0.126***

[0.023]

Cohort (birth year)

 1966–1974 (Ref. Cat)

 1930–1938

0.015

[0.060]

–

− 0.029

[0.063]

0.031

[0.063]

 1939–1947

0.049**

[0.014]

0.046***

[0.012]

0.005

[0.027]

0.054*

[0.020]

 1948–1956

0.051**

[0.017]

0.045***

[0.010]

0.024

[0.031]

0.059*

[0.023]

 1957–1965

0.014^†

[0.008]

0.008

[0.006]

0.004

[0.010]

0.021^†

[0.011]

 1975–1983

− 0.014^†

[0.008]

− 0.020***

[0.005]

− 0.002

[0.008]

− 0.002

[0.014]

 1984–1992

− 0.033***

[0.008]

− 0.027**

[0.008]

0.030*

[0.012]

− 0.056***

[0.014]

 1993+

− 0.043***

[0.009]

− 0.037***

[0.009]

–

− 0.029*

[0.011]

Sex

 Male (Ref. Cat.)

 Female

0.001

[0.006]

− 0.008*

[0.004]

0.010

[0.009]

− 0.001

[0.009]

Province of residence

 Ontario (Ref. Cat.)

 Québec

− 0.016

[0.017]

− 0.006

[0.005]

− 0.013

[0.024]

− 0.024

[0.025]

 British Columbia

0.005

[0.007]

0.011^†

[0.006]

0.014

[0.010]

− 0.009

[0.010]

 Alberta

0.012^†

[0.007]

0.007

[0.005]

0.024*

[0.010]

0.010

[0.009]

 Manitoba & Saskatchewan

0.008

[0.008]

0.001

[0.006]

0.024*

[0.011]

0.004

[0.010]

 Atlantic Provinces

− 0.030***

[0.007]

− 0.025***

[0.005]

− 0.027*

[0.010]

− 0.035***

[0.009]

Type of region

 Urban (Ref. Cat.)

 Rural

0.006

[0.005]

0.010*

[0.004]

0.003

[0.008]

0.002

[0.008]

 Missing information

− 0.030

[0.018]

− 0.022

[0.017]

–

− 0.025

[0.019]

Highest level of education

 High school diploma or post-secondary non-university diploma (Ref. Cat.)

 Less than high school

− 0.145***

[0.009]

− 0.130***

[0.005]

− 0.153***

[0.011]

− 0.158***

[0.012]

 University diploma

0.087***

[0.009]

0.087***

[0.004]

0.083***

[0.014]

0.089***

[0.014]

 Missing information

− 0.031

[0.036]

–

− 0.038

[0.035]

− 0.036

[0.036]

Mother tongue and language spoken at home

 Mother tongue: English (EN) (Ref. Cat.) 

 Mother tongue: French (FR)

− 0.023^†

[0.012]

− 0.028***

[0.004]

− 0.026

[0.017]

− 0.015

[0.019]

 Mother tongue: other/home language: EN or FR

− 0.015

[0.012]

− 0.010

[0.007]

− 0.017

[0.018]

− 0.016

[0.015]

 Mother tongue: other/home language: other

− 0.186***

[0.029]

− 0.114***

[0.010]

− 0.219***

[0.037]

− 0.207***

[0.041]

Mother’s level of education

 Less than high school (Ref. Cat.)

 High school diploma or post-secondary non-university diploma

0.038***

[0.005]

0.041***

[0.004]

0.041***

[0.007]

0.035***

[0.007]

 University diploma

0.043***

[0.006]

0.065***

[0.005]

0.034***

[0.009]

0.031**

[0.010]

 Missing information

− 0.031*

[0.014]

− 0.049**

[0.015]

− 0.021

[0.016]

− 0.023

[0.016]

Practice of literacy activities at home

 Weekly or daily (Ref. Cat.)

 Less than once a week

− 0.057***

[0.007]

− 0.048***

[0.003]

− 0.064***

[0.012]

− 0.062***

[0.011]

Labour force status and literacy skill use at work

 Active: weekly or daily use of skill at work (Ref. cat.)

 Active: use of skill at work less than once a week

− 0.045***

[0.005]

− 0.055***

[0.004]

− 0.044***

[0.009]

− 0.045***

[0.008]

 Inactive

− 0.070***

[0.009]

− 0.078***

[0.006]

− 0.070***

[0.012]

− 0.064***

[0.013]

Immigration status

 Native-born Canadian (Ref. Cat.)

 Foreign-born Canadian

− 0.049***

[0.010]

− 0.069***

[0.006]

− 0.046***

[0.012]

− 0.040**

[0.014]

Constant

5.720***

[0.014]

5.709***

[0.008]

5.729***

[0.018]

5.726***

[0.021]

Sample size (n)

Adjusted R²