Exploring the relationship between process data and contextual variables among Scandinavian students on PISA 2012 mathematics tasks

Large-scale Assessments in Education

An IERI – International Educational Research Institute Journal

Table 4 Constraints of parameters in the measurement invariance models

Model	Covariance between factors	Residual correlation	Residual variance	Intercept	Loading
Configural	Free	Free	Free	Free	Free
Weak	Free	Free	Free	Free	Fixed
Strong	Free	Free	Free	Fixed	Fixed
Strict	Free	Fixed	Fixed	Fixed	Fixed
Structural	Fixed	Fixed	Fixed	Fixed	Fixed

Free indicates that the parameters were freely estimated for each country. Fixed indicates that the parameters were fixed to be the same between countries