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An IERI – International Educational Research Institute Journal

Table 10 Steps 6 and 7 from the hierarchical two-level linear regression models for mathematics and science achievement, grade 4, TIMSS 2019

From: Boys’ underachievement in mathematics and science: An analysis of national and international assessment data from the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

 

Mathematics

Science

Step 6

Step 7

Step 6

Step 7

R2

Student-level (%)

21.0

26.2

22.5

27.4

Class/school-level (%)

54.9

71.4

46.0

64.8

Intercept (SE)

396.29 (21.00)

296.27 (37.86)

433.35 (21.20)

320.48 (35.66)

Student-level variables (reference category)

B (SE)

B (SE)

B (SE)

B (SE)

Gender (male)

− 6.71 (11.92)

164.98 (54.64)**

21.52 (8.79)*

249.50 (59.64)***

Student immigration status (native)

    

 Second-generation immigrant students

15.40 (11.36)

14.58 (11.44)

14.12 (11.98)

13.25 (12.08)

 First-generation immigrant students

26.74 (17.41)

26.53 (17.24)

32.10 (14.51)*

37.67 (13.70)**

Home resources for learning

4.35 (2.11)*

4.64 (2.11)*

2.85 (2.79)

2.83 (2.79)

Student owns mobile phone (no)

− 0.10 (4.70)

0.10 (4.51)

− 1.58 (1.96)

− 1.45 (1.96)

Literacy and numeracy readiness for school

7.57 (1.44)***

7.57 (1.43)***

7.62 (1.41)***

10.35 (1.91)***

Preschool attendance and duration (did not attend)

 1 year or less

1.51 (6.97)

0.38 (6.81)

4.88 (5.19)

3.79 (5.14)

 2 years

− 6.20 (8.84)

− 8.60 (8.84)

8.61 (6.40)

6.55 (6.36)

 3 years or more

15.10 (9.06)

14.00 (8.81)

8.71 (8.62)

8.66 (8.49)

Student absenteeism (never or almost never)

 Once every two months

5.36 (9.85)

4.74 (9.69)

7.90 (7.20)

8.14 (7.23)

 Once a month

7.54 (8.60)

7.21 (8.49)

− 2.91 (7.42)

− 2.24 (7.39)

 Once every two weeks

− 20.34 (8.88)*

− 21.87 (8.85)*

− 15.47 (9.37)

− 15.07 (9.20)

 Once a week

− 23.53 (7.35)**

− 34.61 (8.67)***

− 21.05 (5.67)***

− 20.78 (5.50)***

Student likes learning mathematics/science

4.67 (1.60)**

4.82 (1.55)**

5.33 (1.76)**

5.16 (1.75)**

Student confident in mathematics/science

7.91 (1.50)***

8.24 (1.47)***

7.89 (1.62)***

8.09 (1.61)***

Student sense of school belonging

− 3.10 (1.16)**

− 3.10 (1.17)**

− 3.68 (1.32)**

− 3.55 (1.31)**

Bullyinga

4.91 (1.28)***

5.20 (1.26)***

5.78 (1.44)***

5.91 (1.44)***

Class/school−level variables (reference category)

School mean of home resources for learning

15.70 (9.03)

10.65 (8.07)

22.16 (6.74)**

17.82 (5.67)**

School location (urban)

 Suburban/medium size city or large town

− 8.40 (11.43)

− 3.81 (9.56)

− 10.96 (9.66)

− 36.03 (10.25)***

 Small town or village/remote rural

54.91 (26.49)*

42.47 (24.77)

60.77 (20.36)**

60.10 (16.90)***

Teacher age (40 years or older)

 29 years or younger

15.59 (19.55)

− 4.73 (18.68)

− 43.78 (17.99)*

− 17.31 (16.16)

 30–39 years

16.37 (14.17)

18.35 (12.26)

− 28.52 (10.26)**

− 20.29 (9.24)*

Safe and orderly schools

0.32 (3.21)

6.63 (4.00)

5.29 (3.07)

9.92 (3.52)**

School emphasis on academic success

− 0.26 (2.76)

2.93 (2.58)

− 1.91 (1.83)

− 0.75 (1.71)

School discipline

− 3.91 (3.80)

− 1.60 (3.74)

− 1.84 (2.68)

− 0.85 (2.51)

Teacher years of experience

1.76 (0.60)**

2.23 (0.59)***

− 1.51 (0.60)*

− 0.95 (0.59)

Teacher job satisfaction

1.10 (4.34)

− 0.03 (4.03)

− 3.32 (3.34)

− 4.52 (3.17)

Time assigned to mathematics/science homework (15 min or less)b

4.63 (8.85)

9.68 (8.52)

− 7.30 (11.31)

− 5.47 (9.81)

Poor teacher timekeeping (not a problem)

 Minor problem

− 24.39 (11.49)*

− 14.89 (8.67)

2.50 (11.75)

4.86 (10.50)

 Moderate or serious problem

− 2.18 (17.35)

13.44 (16.06)

− 1.66 (17.19)

− 0.39 (15.45)

Teacher absenteeism (not a problem)

 Minor problem

8.04 (13.45)

5.03 (11.02)

1.01 (13.17)

− 2.16 (10.94)

 Moderate or serious problem

− 7.64 (23.90)

− 8.53 (21.01)

1.87 (16.55)

5.55 (13.59)

Teacher major area of study (education and mathematics/science)

 Mathematics/science but not education

− 8.20 (9.26)

− 6.76 (8.18)

− 2.69 (9.78)

− 7.35 (8.84)

 All other majors

− 9.88 (12.49)

− 18.21 (10.74)

− 23.80 (18.47)

− 34.13 (17.72)

Professional development hours on mathematics/science (more than 35 h)

 16–35 h

− 29.46 (11.69)*

− 22.62 (10.50)*

3.50 (14.09)

5.25 (11.73)

 6–15 h

− 5.35 (13.24)

4.99 (12.26)

− 5.01 (12.01)

− 4.52 (10.92)

 Less than 6 h

− 3.30 (14.44)

4.14 (12.28)

18.81 (15.70)

12.82 (13.31)

 None

− 1.71 (21.24)

− 2.60 (16.21)

− 35.32 (15.06)*

− 37.77 (15.23)*

Professional development on mathematics/science content (no)

19.53 (10.85)

15.17 (10.60)

9.96 (12.76)

11.64 (11.14)

Professional development on mathematics/science pedagogy (no)

13.29 (11.26)

14.85 (9.46)

− 2.53 (10.00)

− 1.60 (9.00)

Principal years of experience

− 0.13 (0.79)

− 0.29 (0.71)

− 0.20 (0.66)

0.15 (0.60)

Principal highest level of education (ISCED levels 7 & 8 — master’s or doctorate degree)c

− 3.76 (15.01)

4.78 (12.47)

− 11.91 (10.93)

− 13.19 (9.41)

Principal qualification in educational leadership (no)

− 4.76 (13.02)

− 6.06 (10.83)

5.72 (9.43)

7.28 (8.66)

School library (no)

19.09 (10.82)

15.10 (10.29)

4.69 (8.59)

7.65 (7.90)

Interaction terms (reference category)

Gender*Safe and orderly schools

 

− 16.25 (5.13)**

 

− 15.61 (4.93)**

Gender*Student absenteeism (never or almost never)—once a week

 

22.88 (10.44)*

  

Gender*Teacher age (40 years or older)—29 years or younger

 

89.46 (30.62)**

  

Gender*literacy and numeracy readiness for school

   

− 6.29 (2.57)*

Gender*school location (urban)—suburban/medium size city or large town

   

75.76 (15.57)***

Fit statistics

Loglikelihood (H0)

− 8549.92

− 8533.11

− 12381.76

− 12361.03

AIC

17193.84

17166.23

24857.51

24822.05

BIC

17442.83

17431.12

25123.27

25104.77

  1. Null mathematics model: Intercept (SE): 402.02 (4.44), ICC = 0.31, H0 = − 32210.89, AIC = 64427.78, BIC = 64447.59
  2. Null science model: Intercept (SE): 407.42 (4.88), ICC = 0.30, H0 = − 32704.43, AIC = 65414.86, BIC = 65434.67
  3. *p < .05
  4. **p < .01
  5. ***p < .001
  6. aHigher scores indicate less frequent bullying
  7. bOther category: 16 min or more
  8. cOther category: ISCED Level 6—bachelor’s or equivalent level