Table 2 Outcome variable, measures for students’ perceived supportive climate, and control variables used in the present study

Science achievement as a student-level outcome variable

 PVSCIE (student science achievement)

10

Probability scores to represent achievement

Continuous scale

A set of 10 plausible values—PV1SCIE-PV10SCIE

Predictors for supportive climate at the student level from the student questionnaire

 TEACHSUP (perceived teacher support in science classes)

5

How often do these things happen in your science lessons?

“The teachers show an interest in every student’s learning.”

4-point scale (1 = Every lesson to 4 = Never or hardly ever)

Index based on IRT scaling (Cronbach’s alpha ranges from 0.88 to 0.93 in Nordic countries). A positive index corresponds to students’ perceiving that their teachers support their learning

 FAIR (^ateacher fairness, reversed variable Unfairteacher)

6

During the past 12 months, how often did you have the following experiences at school?

“Teachers called on me less often than they called on other students.”

4-point scale (1 = Almost never to 4 = Once a week or more)

Scale with means of six items

 PERFEED (perceived feedback from science teachers)

5

How often do these things happen in your science lessons?

“The teacher gives me feedback on my strengths in this subject.”

4-point scale (1 = Never or almost never to 4 = Every lesson or almost every lesson)

Index based on IRT scaling (Cronbach’s alpha ranges from 0.90 to 0.94 in Nordic countries). A positive index corresponds to students’ perceiving that their teachers provide regular feedback

 DISCLISCI (class discipline in science classes)

5

How often do these things happen in your science class?

“There is noise and disorder.”

4-point scale (1 = Every lesson to 4 = Never or hardly ever)

Index based on IRT scaling (Cronbach’s alpha ranges from 0.88 to 0.91in Nordic countries). A high index corresponds to a more positive class discipline

Student-level control variables from the student questionnaire

 Gender of the student

1

Are you a girl or a boy?

1 of 2 response options

PISA categories: Girl = 1, Boy = 2

Recoded as Girl = 0, Boy = 1

 Immigration background (IMMIG1, IMMIG2)

3

In which country

- were you born?

- was your mother born?

- was your father born?

4 response options e.g., born in the country of PISA-test

PISA categories: native (1) if born in country, second-generation student (2), and first-generation immigrant (3) if born outside

Used dummy coding:

For IMMIG1, first-generation = 0, native = 1

For IMMIG2, second-generation = 0, native = 1

 ESCS (the socio-economic profile of the student)

9

What is your

- parents’ highest level of education?

- parents’ highest occupational status?

- family wealth?

For family wealth e.g., household items, number of books at home, and educational resources

PISA index is a composite score derived from indicators via Principal Component Analysis (PCA)

Used as an index

(scale standardised to have a mean of zero and a standard deviation of one.)

 EDUASPIR (student’s aspirations for future education)

1

“Which educational achievement level do you expect to complete?”

6 response options: e.g., lower secondary, upper secondary to university level

PISA categories: ISCED 2, to ISCED 6

Used as percentage of students in different response categories

School-level control variables from the school questionnaire

 STUBEHA (student behaviour hindering learning)

5

To what degree is each of the following a problem among the students in your school?

“Student truancy (i.e. arriving late for school).”

4-point scale (1 = Not at all to 4 = a lot)

Index based on IRT scaling (Cronbach’s alpha ranges from 0.74 to 0.79 in Nordic countries)

 STRATIO (student/teacher ratio in school as an indicator of the availability of educational resources.)

2

How many—students are enrolled in grade 10 in your school?

- teachers are there at your school?

2 response categories

Derived by dividing the total number of full-time students by the total number of full-time teachers in PISA 2015

Used as school principals’ reports as a measure of the spare teacher resource capacity within schools

 SCHLTYPE (the type of school)

2

Is your school public or private?

What is the source of resources for funding?

“Private refers to schools managed directly or indirectly by a non-government organization.”

3 response categories based on school principals’ reports

Used as dummy coded:

As 0 = public, 1 = private (with or without funding)

 EDUSHORT (shortage of educational material in school hindering learning)

4

To what extent the school’s capacity to provide instruction was hindered?

“Lack of educational material (e.g. textbooks, IT equipment, library, or lab-oratory material).”

4-point scale (1 = Not at all to 4 = a lot)

Index based on IRT scaling (Cronbach’s alpha ranges from 0.81to 0.88 in Nordic countries)