Table 1 Measures of students’ perceived school climate and outcome variables used in the present study (see OECD 2016a, 2017b)

School climate variables

 DISCLI (disciplinary climate in science classes)

How often do these things happen in your science class? (high index corresponds to a more positive disciplinary climate)

There is noise and disorder

4-point scale (1 = Every lesson to 4 = Never or hardly ever)

 TEACHSUP (teacher support in science classes)

How often do these things happen in your science lessons? (positive index in case students perceive that their science teachers support their learning)

The teachers show an interest in every student’s learning

4-point scale (1 = Every lesson to 4 = Never or hardly ever)

 BELONG (sense of belonging)

Thinking about your school: to what extent do you agree with the following statements? (positive values on scale mean a greater sense of belonging)

I feel like an outsider (or left out of things) at school

statements with negative wordings were inverted

4-point scale (1 = Strongly agree to 4 = Strongly disagree)

 EMOSUP (parents’ emotional support for school)

Thinking about this academic year: to what extent do you agree or disagree with the following statements? (high index indicates positive parental emotional support)

My parents support my educational efforts and achievements

4-point scale (1 = Strongly disagree to 4 = Strongly agree)

 PERFEED (perceived feedback from science teachers)

How often do these things happen in your science lessons? (positive values on Index indicate that students perceive that their teachers provide regular feedback in their science classes)

The teacher gives me feedback on my strengths in this subject

4-point scale (1 = Never or almost never to 4 = Every lesson or almost every lesson)

 FAIR (teacher fairness, reversed variable Unfairteacher)

During the past 12 months, how often did you have the following experiences at school?

Teachers called on me less often than they called on other students.

4-point scale (1 = Almost never to 4 = Once a week or more)

 ANTIBULL (not being bullied in school, reversed variable ‘Beingbullied’)

During the past 12 months, how often have you had the following experiences in school? (low scores indicate high degrees of bullying)

I was threatened by other students

4-point scale (1 = Never or almost never to 4 = Once a week or more)

The six items were coded dichotomously (0 = students indicate that they did not feel bullied, 1 = students indicate that they felt bullied)

Covariates

 ESCS (PISA index of economic, social, and cultural status)

PARED index

HISEI index

HOMEPOS index

Parents’ highest level of education

Parents’ highest occupational status

Proxy measure for family wealth (availability of household items, number of books at home, and educational resources)

Various

 Immigration background (Immig1, Immig2)

In which country were you and your parents were born?

(1) Native, (2) second-generation student and (3) first generation immigrant

Using the native students as the reference (0), dummy-coded variables indicating first- or second-generation immigration status

Educational outcomes

 ACHMOT (achievement motivation)

To what extent do you disagree or agree with the following statements about yourself? (high index score shows high motivation to achieve)

I want to be one of the best students in my class

“I want top grades in most or all of my courses”

4-point scale (1 = Strongly agree to 4 = Strongly disagree)

 PVSCIE (science achievement)

A set of 10 scores to represent achievement

PV1SCIE–PV10SCIE

Continuous scale