Table 2 Description of the items included in the analyses

Reading achievement

Pupils’ test result on the PIRLS 2001 test.

Pupil

Gender

Pupil gender (Girl = 1, Boy = 0)

Pupil

Number of books at home

About how many books are there in your home? Ordinal variable—1–5: 0–10, 11–25, 26–50, 51–100, more than 100

Parent

Well-off financially

How well off do you think your family is compared to other families? Ordinal variable—1–5: Not at all well-off, Not well-off, Average, Somewhat well-off, Very well-off

Parent

Annual income

Household annual income. Ordinal variable—1–6: Less than $20,000, $20,000– $29,999, $30,000–$39,999, $40,000–$49 999, $50,000–$59,999, $60,000or more

Parent

Highest education

Highest educational level in the home. Ordinal variable—1–8: Some compulsory school, Completed compulsory school, Two years of upper-secondary education, Three years of upper-secondary education, Post-secondary education, Two years of university studies, University studies—candidate level, University studies—Master’s level

Parent

Highest occupational level

Highest occupational level in the home. Ordinal variable—1–3: Blue collar, White collar, Academic

Parent

Attitude1

I read only if I have to. Ordinal variable. Four alternatives: Agree a lot (1), Agree a little (2), Disagree a little (3), Disagree a lot (4)

Pupil

Attitude2

I think reading is boring. Ordinal variable. Four alternatives: Agree a lot (1), Agree a little (2), Disagree a little (3), Disagree a lot (4)

Pupil

Attitude3

I would be happy if someone gave me a book as a present. Ordinal variable. Four alternatives: Agree a lot (1), Agree a little (2), Disagree a little (3), Disagree a lot (4)

Pupil

Attitude4

I enjoy reading. Ordinal variable. Four alternatives: Agree a lot (1), Agree a little (2), Disagree a little (3), Disagree a lot (4)

Pupil